The political events of the French Revolution are extraordinarily well documented, but most people – both French nationals, and visitors to the country – tend to avert their gaze from the details of a period of history in which a nation descended into anarchy.
In particular, it is the image of the guillotine and of the massacres that took place in the streets of Paris that we have come to associate with these terrible times.
However, history is there for us to learn from, and anyone who loves France and the French way of life would probably be well advised to come to an understanding of what happened, why it happened, and what effect it still has on life today.
Causes of the French Revolution
Whereas the institutions of other powerful European countries had been forced to reform under pressure from the new Protestant religion, France had, for the two hundred years prior to the Revolution, succeeded in suppressing the new religion altogether: the French Protestants, the Huguenots, had been driven from positions of power, massacred during the infamous events of Saint Bartholomew’s Eve and eventually exiled en masse.
This left the King, the nobles, and, in particular, the French Church, in a position of unchallenged power: a power which they systematically abused until the country was bankrupt, and had lost all respect in the eyes of the people whom they were oppressing.
By 1789, everyone knew that change was inevitable, the only question was whether it would be brought about by revolution or whether reforms could be introduced to which everyone would agree.
Danton is famous for being the first to urge the use of terror to restore order to a nation plunged in anarchy, and for not believing that he himself would be tried and executed – which he was.
The Revolution
The early stages of the Revolution were not inauspicious. Delegates from the ‘Third Estate’ asserted their right to speak on behalf of ordinary people and the King showed himself disposed to yield to reasonable reforms. However, these delegates had no experience of government and their ideas arose from purely theoretical discussions of philosophy that French intellectuals had been pursuing for the past century.
As was to be expected, the first two years of the Revolution were accompanied by financial turmoil, but, by and large, people were prepared to let events take their course in the hope that things would eventually start to get better. The exception to this rule were the people of Paris, who played an active role in every stage of the Revolution.
Things took a serious turn for the worse when the Assembly voted to declare war on Austria in the belief that Austria was planning to invade. Passions within Paris became inflamed as the citizens grew fearful that the city might be occupied by a foreign army; in particular, it was thought that people of the old regime might inform against people involved in the new regime; this led to a massacre of prisoners held in Parisian gaols. Furthermore the war resulted in spiralling expenditure and inflation. Shopkeepers became unwilling to exchange goods for money which they considered to be valueless, and as a consequence there were serious shortages of essential goods, especially in Paris. One of the revolutionary leaders responded by printing a pamphlet advising women to take what they wanted from the shops and to  leave the amount of money that they thought was fair. People took this as licence to start looting the shops. After this, farmers felt less inclined to bring goods into Paris and bands of Parisians took to roving the surrounding countryside, robbing anyone who they found transporting foodstuffs; consequently, peasants stopped offering their produce for sale at all. For several years Paris was constantly on the edge of serious famine. This raised political tension, which led to more heated arguments with the King, and then to him being first deposed, and then charged with being in league with the enemy. He was found guilty and executed. This in turn sparked off a revolt in large areas of the country. Faced with civil war at home, foreign armies on the borders, food shortages, inflation, and widespread anarchy, the government responded by introducing the ‘Terror’, which was designed to terrorise people into obeying its will. Over a hundred thousand people were imprisoned without trial, and many thousands were killed. As the government became more embroiled in this policy, suspicion turned in upon itself and many of the original revolutionaries were themselves guillotined.
The tragedy is that the foreign wars could almost certainly have been avoided: the European powers were undoubtedly pleased to see France in a weakened state and riven by internal divisions, and had no desire either to preserve the old regime or to meddle in such a volatile situation. Unfortunately, the deputies of the new assembly were more accustomed to inflaming themselves, and each other, through impassioned speeches than to the application of cold logic, and they precipitated their country into a war that was to continue, uninterrupted for twenty-three years, and which effectively prevented any of the ideals which they held close to their hearts, from ever being
realised.
The legacy of the Revolution
Given the horror of the events that occurred during the Revolution, it is easy to forget that it was motivated by the desire to establish the ‘Rights of Man’ and to create a society based on ‘Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’. One of the hidden and most perfidious consequences of the Revolution is that it has made subsequent generations fearful of pursuing these ideals, in case their efforts should lead to the same disasters as those which followed in the train of the Revolution of 1789.
This is perhaps the main reason why we should study the events of those times. Everyone deserves the chance to decide for themselves whether it is realistic to strive for a higher ideal in life, and to learn from the mistakes of revolutionaries of the past.
Robespierre was known as ‘the incorruptible’. He pioneered measures such as health care for the sick and pensions for the old but his name is now most commonly associated with ‘the Terror’ in which he denounced and executed anyone whose views differed from his own.
TIMELINE OF EVENTS
May 1789: King Louis XVI is forced to summon the ‘Etats Généraux’, the nearest equivalent that France had to a democratic parliament. It was composed of delegates from three ‘Etats’ – the nobility, the clergy, and the ‘Third Estate’ which was the bourgeoisie from the towns.
The ‘Etats Généraux’ had not been held for a hundred and fifty years, during which time the king had reigned as an absolute monarch.
The regime was now bankrupt and unable to pay the officials which kept it in power.
June 1789: The ‘Third Estate’ demand that the nobility and the clergy give up their privileges and agree to pay tax. When excluded from the ‘Etats Généraux’ they set up a ‘National Assembly’.
July 1789: Incited by the orators of the National Assembly, the people of Paris storm the Bastille, signalling an end to the absolute power enjoyed by the monarchy.
1789/1790: The assembly establishes new institutions in an attempt to create a constitutional monarchy similar to that of neighbouring countries; the King and his family are more or less forced to move from Versailles to Paris; new means of raising revenue are introduced, the most radical of which is the seizure of church property by the state.
1791: Although nominally the head of state, the King attempts to flee the country. He is recognised and brought back to Paris.
April 1792: The assembly declares war on Austria, and its ally, Prussia.
August 1792: The King seeks refuge in the Assembly but the building is stormed by the National Guard. The King is imprisoned on suspicion of being in league with Austria and Prussia. Power supposedly passes from the Assembly to ‘The Convention’ which is composed of delegates elected by universal suffrage, but in reality it is seized by Robespierre who controls the radical Paris ‘Commune’.
Sept 1792: The Prussian army which is advancing towards Paris meets the French army at Valmy. It is stopped in its progress and then withdraws. The monarchy is abolished and France becomes a republic.
1793: The King is executed. In order to continue the war, the Convention decides to introduce conscription which sparks a revolt in the Vendée, in Brittany, across the South-west of France and in many of the large towns, including Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. Paris is subject to shortages of all goods and is gripped by famine. The government in Paris responds by introducing ‘The Terror’ in which anyone suspected of being opposed to their views is imprisoned and executed after a summary trial, with no right of appeal.
1794: Robespierre strengthens his position of absolute dictator by killing and imprisoning everyone who might be opposed to him. The war goes on and the French armies continue to be successful.
July 1794: The deputies of the Convention rebel against Robespierre. Robespierre himself is guillotined.
1795 to 1799: The Convention is replaced by a Directorate which is composed of the more moderate members of the Convention. The war continues. The government drifts towards bankruptcy.
1799: Napolean Bonaparte stages a coup d’état and the revolution is officially over.
Written by Gareth Lewis. First published in the Centrel Brittany Journal January 2005. Illustrations by Wendy Lewis and Samuel lewis
